In order to manage the presentation of information that is stored in dissimilar formats, new multimedia-based authoring systems are being developed. These programs vary considerably in design, but all are capable of incorporating text, graphics, sound, and video into one program. These programs provide special tools to manage these resources and to deliver them to the user interactively.
With the emergence of ever more realistic computer graphics, many people have found the computer's monitor to be a limited output device for displaying them. Many found the two-dimensional view of modern, complex colour graphics did not fully convey the potential held by this new form of computerized information. This led to the investigation of ways to present and to interact with more realistic, three-dimensional displays. The result was the development of highly realistic displays that provide users with the feeling that they are fully immersed in the computer image. Collectively, these applications have become known by the title of "virtual reality."
Adjective denotes a quality or a feature of an object. |
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Formation |
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suffixes |
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-able fashionable -al magical -ant important -ar spectacular -ary disciplinary -ate delicate -ial national
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-ent patient -esque picturesque -ful faithful -ian Iranian -ible terrible -ic melodic |
-ical physical -ious rebellious -ish stylish -ist racist -ive selective -less faultless |
-like woman-like -ly deathly -ory sensory -ous humorous -some bothersome -y sandy |
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prefixes |
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a asexual ab abnormal anti antisocial dis disinterested hyper hyperactive il illegible |
im immoral in inactive ir irresponsible mal maladjusted non non-existent over overweight |
pre prearranged pro pro-war sub sub-zero super superhuman un unavailable under understaffed |
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Compound adjectives are formed with: - present participles: a long-playing record - past participles: undercooked meat, cut-off jeans - cardinal numbers + nouns (in singular): a ten-minute journey - well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle: a poorly-kept garden, a well-timed joke. |
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Order of adjectives |
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Opinion adjectives |
Fact adjectives |
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size |
age |
shape |
colour |
origin |
material |
use for/be about |
noun |
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It’s a |
beautiful |
big |
old |
round |
brown |
Italian |
oak |
dining |
table. |
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Substantivized adjectives |
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There are some adjectives that we can use with the to talk about groups of people in society Words that we can use in a phrase with the
The young means 'young people in general' When we mean a specific person or a specific group of people, then we use man, woman, people, etc. |
the disabled, the blind
the disadvantaged, the homeless, the hungry, the poor, the privileged, the rich, the starving the blind, the deaf, the dead, the disabled, the handicapped the elderly, the middle-aged, the old, the over-sixties, the under-fives The young have their lives in front of them. None of the young people in the village can find jobs here. |
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Direct meaning |
Figurative meaning |
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A silk scarf, a stone cottage, a gold pen, a feather duster, a metal chair, a leather wallet, lead pipes, a steel framework. |
silky hair, a stony expression, golden hair, feathery leaves, a metallic colour, a leathery skin, a leaden feeling, a steely look. |
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Degrees of comparison |
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Most adjectives have three degrees of comparison: |
Irregular comparisons |
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Positive |
Comparative |
Superlative |
bad worse worst far farther farthest further furthest good better best little less least many/much more most old elder eldest older oldest |
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dark |
darker |
darkest |
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one-syllable adj: positive form + er & est |
bright brighter brightest
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adj of three or more syllables :more & most+ the positive: |
interested more interested most interested |
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adj of 2 syllables follow one or other of the above rules |
doubtful more doubtful most doubtful, clever cleverer cleverest |
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farther/farthest & further/furthest both can be used of distances York is farther/further than Selby. Further can be used with abstract nouns to mean ‘additional/extra’ Further discussion/debate would be pointless. Similarly: further enquires/delays/demands/information/ instructions. |
elder, eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are used for comparison within a family: my elder brother But! Elder is not used with than, so we use older: He’s older than I am. We use eldest for people only, but oldest we use for both people & things. |
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Before the comparative we should use a bit, a little, slightly, much, a lot, far:
English is a
bit/ a little/ slightly/ much/ a lot/ far
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Constructions with comparisons |
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Positive form => ‘+’ as … as; ‘-‘ not as/not so … as. He was as white as a sheet. Your coffee is not as/so good as the coffee my mother makes. The new building is twice as high as the old one. – в 2 раза выше Comparative form => than. He’s stronger than I expected = I didn’t expect him to be so strong. Superlative form => the … in/of: This is the oldest theatre in London. Superlative form + present perfect: This is the worst film I have ever seen. Note! most+adjective without the means very: You’re most kind = You’re very kind. the + comparative… the + comparative: The smaller the house is, the less it will cost us to heat it. Comparatives joined by and: The weather is getting colder and colder. |
like + noun & as + noun: He worked like a slave. (very hard indeed) He worked as a slave. (He was a slave) than/as + pronoun+auxiliary I earn less than he does. (=less than he earns) than/as+I/we/you+verb = omit the verb. I’m not as old as you (are). than/as is followed by he/she/it + verb, we normally keep the verb: You’re stronger than he is. But we can drop the verb and use him/her/them: I swim better a him. Adjectives + one/ones One/ones = previously mentioned noun: I lost my old camera; this is a new one. first/second can be used with or without one/ones: Which train did you catch? ~ I caught the first (one). Adjectives of colour can sometimes be used as pronouns: I like the blue (one) best. |
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‘as …as…’ with ‘twice’, ‘three times’, etc., ‘half’, ‘a third’, etc.: Japan’s car exports are twice as high as Britain’s. Rice-growing is only half as important as it used to be. Note Present and Past Participles can be used as adjectives: Present Participles describe the quality of a noun /annoying behaviour/ (what kind of behaviour) Past Participles describe how the subject feels /annoyed teacher/ (How does the teacher feel)
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Proverbs & Sayings |
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As dumb as a wooden Indian As easy as ABC As silent as a grave As fit as a fiddle As white as a sheet As stubborn as a mule |
Дурний, як пробка Простіше простого Німий, як могила При повному здоров'ї Білий, як крейда Упертий, як осел |
As old as the hills Like bull in a China shop To sleep like a log To smoke like a chimney To sell like hot cakes
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Старе, як світ. Як слон у посудній лавці Спати, як убитий Диміти, як труба Бути нарозхват |
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The best is the enemy of the good. (Walter Scott) It’s much easier to be critical than to be correct. (Disraeli) |
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Among the most exciting new applications of the computer is the ability to bring together information that exists in a variety of forms. New computer tools, often using combinations of hardware and software, are now providing better ways to bring together information that is stored on other media in the form of graphics, sound, and video. These new programs, known collectively as multimedia applications, bring the other media sources under computer control.
CD-ROM - based Multimedia
One of the problems in dealing with computer-controlled sound and graphics is that the related files require extremely large amounts of storage. One solution is to store graphics, sound, and video files on a high-capacity device such as compact disk (CD). Compact disks can store huge amounts of data and the CD drives can be used to deliver this information to the computer's internal memory as data. Because most of these devices cannot be used to record information, they are known as read-only memory (ROM) devices. Although they are used to store computer data, these devices do not use the same kind of magnetic media generally used by computers to store data. Instead, these devices store information by permanently etching the encoded data into the same kind of plastic disk used to store and play back popular music. Because the stored data is deciphered using a laser-based reading device, there is no physical contact with the disk and no possibility of wear to the disk. Their high capacity and permanence are making CD-ROM disks a common storage and delivery tool for multimedia.
The videodisc player is similar to the compact disk player, but the disks used are somewhat different. While the CD disks are used to store and deliver computer data, videodiscs are used to store and deliver video images. They can be used to deliver high-quality video to a television set by displaying the video images in sequence at the same 30-frames-per-second rate that is used in broadcast television. Many videodisc players can be controlled by computer. And because the video images are stored a single image at a time, one image can be displayed under computer control or a sequence of images can be displayed to create the effect of live video.
Most of the video images we are used to seeing on our home television sets were originally captured using a video camera and stored on video tape. But today, special devices make it possible to store video images in digital form on a computer's magnetic media as computer graphics. By rapidly delivering these digital graphics images to the computer's screen one after the other, we can simulate the kind of video images we see on our television set.
Computer-delivered digital video presents many exciting possibilities. Because the video images are stored on normal computer media as data in separate graphics files, there is unlimited potential for editing the video sequence using computer graphics editing methods. And because the video images can be displayed on the computer's screen as graphics, they can be incorporated into presentations that in the past used only still pictures.
Adverb is a part of speech which describes verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or the whole sentence. |
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Formation |
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Adverbs are formed with adjectives + -ly: quick – quickly, calm – calmly Adj. ending in consonant + -y → -ily: sleep – sleepily, weary – wearily Adj. ending in –le drop –le & add –ly: irritable – irritably, reliable – reliably Adj. ending in –e add –ly: false – falsely, BUT: whole – wholly, true – truly Adj. ending in –ly (cowardly, elderly, fatherly, friendly, lively, lonely, motherly, silly, ugly etc) form their adv. with –in a(n) … way (manner): in a motherly manner, in a lively way etc. |
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Semantic classification |
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Kinds of adverbs |
Position |
Example |
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Manner (bravely, happily, fast, hard, well, beautifully, reluctantly, suspiciously, carefully, angrily, secretly, foolishly, badly, somehow) |
After the verb or the object where there is one The short obj.:V+obj.+adv. The long obj.: V+adv.+obj. Foolishly, kindly, stupidly,…+V |
She danced beautifully. They speak E. well. He looked suspiciously at everyone. She carefully picked up all the bits of glass. I foolishly forgot my passport. |
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Place (by, down, here, near, there, up, away, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere) |
After the verb if there is no object V+obj./V+prep.+obj. Here/there+be/come/go+noun subj. Away/down/in/off/out…+V of motion+noun subj. |
She went away. Bill is upstairs. She sent him away. Here comes the train. Away went the runners. Out sprang the cuckoo. |
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Time (now, soon, still, then, today, tomorrow, yet, afterwards, eventually, lately, recently, at one, since then, till) |
At the beginning/end of the clause With compound tenses – after the auxiliary V/ V+obj.+ yet/still Be+still+other verbs Just – with compound sentences |
Eventually he came/ He came eventually. We will soon be there. He hasn’t finished his dinner yet. He is still in bed. I’m just coming. |
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Frequency (always, usually, often, periodically, repeatedly, occasionally, hardly ever, rarely, seldom, never) |
After the simple tenses of to be Before the simple tenses of all other verbs With compound tenses – after the 1st auxiliary, with interrogative V. – after aux.+subj. |
He is always in time for meals. They sometimes stay up all night. He can never understand. Have you ever ridden a camel?
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Degree (fairly, hardly, quite, too, very, absolutely, almost, completely, only, rather) |
Before the adj. or adv. Enough follows its adj. or adv. Far requires a comparative/ too+positive |
You are absolutely right. The box isn’t big enough. It is far better to say anything. |
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Sentence (certainly, definitely, luckily, actually, apparently, clearly, evidently, obviously, presumably, probably, undoubtedly, perhaps, possibly, sure) |
Be+actually/apparently/certainly/clearly etc. Before simple tenses of other verbs After the 1st auxiliary in a compound verb At the beginning/end of a sentence/ clause |
He is certainly intelligent. They actually work hard. They have presumably sold their house. Apparently he knew the town well. |
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Interrogative (when?, where?, why?) |
At the beginning of a sentence |
Where have you been? |
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Relative (when, where, why) |
Before the obj. |
I want to know where he is. |
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Morphological classification - degrees of comparison of some adverbs. |
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Single-syllable adv. & early add –er,-est: hard-harder-hardest, early-earlier-earliest Adv. of 2 or more syllables – more,most+the positive form: quickly-more quickly-most quickly Irregular comparisons: well-better-best, badly-worse-worst, little-less-least, much-more-most, far-further-furthest/farther-farthest. |
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Adjectives & Adverbs which have the same form |
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Best, better, big, cheap*, clean,* close*, cold, daily, dead, dear*, deep, direct, dirty, early, easy, extra, far, fast, fine*, free, further, hard, high, hourly, inside, kindly, last, late, long, loud*, low, monthly, past, quick*, quiet*, right, slow, straight, sure, thin*, thick, tight, weekly, well, wide, wrong, yearly etc. Ann was our last guest. She came in last. Those adv. with an asterisk (*) can be found with –ly ending without a difference in meaning, but then they are more formal. Walk slow! (informal) ALSO Walk slowly! (formal) |
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Adverbs with 2 forms & differences in meaning |
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Deep=a long way down Deeply=greatly Direct=by the shortest route Directly=immediately Easy=gently, slowly Easily=without difficulty Free=without cost (безкоштовно) Freely=willingly |
Full=exactly, very Fully=completely Hard=with effort Hardly=scarcely (майже!) High=at/to a high level Last=after all others Lastly=finally
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Late=not early Lately=recently Near=close Nearly=almost (ледве не!) Pretty=fairly Prettily=in a pretty way Short=suddenly Shortly=soon |
Sure=certainly Surely=without a doubt Wide=off-target Widely=to a large extent Wrong=incorrectly Wrongly=unjustly (wrongly goes before verbs/past part. – wrong/ Wrongly go after verbs) |
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Quite-Fairly-Rather-Pretty |
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• Quite (fairly, in some degree) is used in favourable comments. She is quite good at painting. Quite meaning “completely” is used with adv., some verbs & adj. such as: along, amazing, brilliant, certain, dead, dreadful, different, exhausted, extraordinary, false, horrible, impossible, perfect, ridiculous, right, sure, true, useless etc. I’m quite sure he stole the money. Quite is used before a/an. She is quite a good dancer. • Rather is used: a) in unfavourable comments: He is rather mean with money. b) in favourable comments meaning “to an unusual degree”: The lecture was rather informative.(more than we expected) c) with comparative degree: It’s rather sunnier today then yesterday.(набагато сонячніше) Rather is used before or after a / an: He is a rather rude person. = He is rather a rude person • Fairly & pretty are synonymous with quite & rather. They can be used after a. He is a fairly/pretty well-behaved person.
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Patterns with adverbs |
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Deeply hurt Painfully embarrassed Highly respected / qualified / paid / educated Extremely helpful Bitterly cold Nearly forgot To be short of time *Sadly To fly direct to … |
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Proverbs & Sayings |
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Promise little but do much. If you want a thing well done, do it yourself. A new groom sweeps clean. Actions speak louder than words. Easier said than done. Make haste slowly. To live long it is necessary to live slowly. Of two evils choose the least. |
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Exercise 1. Use the proper degree of adjectives and adverbs.
1) This is a nice cat. It's much ___ than my friend's cat.
2) Here is Emily. She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is ___.
3) This is a difficult exercise. But the exercise with an asterisk (*) is the ___ exercise on the worksheet.
4) He has an interesting hobby, but my sister has the ___ hobby in the world.
5) In the last holidays I read a good book, but father gave me an even ___one last weekend.
6) School is boring, but homework is ___ than school.
7) Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is ___ than skateboarding.
8) This magazine is cheap, but that one is ___.
9) We live in a small house, but my grandparents' house is even ____ than ours.
10) Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the ___ joke I've ever heard.
11) My father is heavy. My uncle is much ___ than my father.
12) The test in Geography was easy, but the test in Biology was ___.
13) Florida is sunny. Do you know the ___ place in the USA?
14) Stan is a successful sportsman, but his sister is ___ than Stan.
15) My mother has a soft voice, but my teacher's voice is ___ than my mother's.
Exercise 2. Complete the following comparisons.
1 Barbara is nearly ___ old ___ her stepmother.
2. There are more ___ two thousand books in my mother's library.
3. Bob talks just ___ his father.
4. Would you be ___ kind ___ to close the door for me?
5. Do ___ I tell you; don't do ___ I do.
6. I am not ___ naive ___ to believe all he promises me.
7. After your heart attack you should walk ___ slowly ___ possible.
8. The Dnieper is not now ___ wide ___ it was.
9. I have ___ many working hours a week ___ any other employee.
10. A shower uses less water ___ a bath.
11. On Sundays we don't have to get up ___ early ___ usual.
12. This house is two times ___ big ___ the old one.
Exercise 3. Put the adverbs in brackets into the proper place.
He listens to the radio. (often)
Tom is very friendly. (usually)
I take sugar in my coffee. (sometimes)
My grandmother goes for a walk in the evening. (always)
They watch TV in the afternoon. (never)
Have you been to London? (ever)
Exercise 4. Choose the right order of adjectives.
1. He's a ________ doctor.
a) young charming b) charming young
2. I plan on wearing my ________ coat.
a) long black b) black long
3. This is a ________ painting from the 18th century.
a) French well-known b) well-known French
4. She was wearing a ________ dress.
a) green beautiful b) beautiful green
5. The ________ bird! I'm going to help it!
a) poor little b) little poor