Action |
VMS command |
Unix command |
List all the files in a directory Delete a file Rename a file Copy a file Send a file to a printer Obtain help Create a directory Show date and time Show users on system Talk to other users on system Search for a string in a file |
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Task 11. Translate the following sentences into English. Mind grammar
1. В даний час існує багато видів різних системних програм, і операційна система займає серед них особливе місце.
2. На продуктивність, надійність, і функціональні можливості персонального комп'ютера впливають багато факторів, встановлена на ньому операційна система - один з них.
3. Коли операційна система здатна виконувати декілька завдань, причому ці завдання виконуються одночасно, вона називається багатозадачною.
4. Операційна система контролює роботу процесора і, якщо запущена задача потребує ресурсві, то її виконання має бути призупинено до отримання ресурсу.
5. Можливості персональних комп'ютерів з обробки інформації обмежені, причому параметри обсягу оброблюваної інформації і швидкості обчислень є найбільш критичними.
Task 12. Find the answers to these questions in the following text
What did Linus Torvalds use to write the Linux kernel?
How was the Linux kernel first made available to the general public?
What is a programmer likely to do with source code?
Why will most software companies not sell you their source code?
What type of utilities and applications are provided in a Linux distribution?
What is X ?
What graphical user interfaces are mentioned in the text?
Linux has its roots in a student project. In 1992, an undergraduate called Linus Torvalds was studying computer science in Helsinki, Finland. Like most computer science courses, a big component of it was taught on (and about) Unix. Unix was the wonder operating system of the 1970s and 1980s: both a textbook example of the principles of operating system design, and sufficiently robust to be the standard OS in engineering and scientific computing. But Unix was a commercial product (licensed by ATE&T to a number of resellers), and cost more than a student could pay.
Annoyed by the shortcomings of Minix (a compact Unix clone written as a teaching aid by Professor Andy Tannenbaum) Linus set out to write his own 'kernel' — the core of an operating system that handles memory allocation, talks to hardware devices, and makes sure everything keeps running. He used the GNU programming tools developed by Richard Stallman's Free Software Foundation, an organisation of volunteers dedicated to fulfilling Stallman's ideal of making good software that anyone could use without paying. When he'd written a basic kernel, he released the source code to the Linux kernel on the Internet.
Source code is important. It's the original from which compiled programs are generated. If you don't have the source code to a program, you can't modify it to fix bugs or add new features. Most software companies won't sell you their source code, or will only do so for an eye-watering price, because they believe that if they make it available it will destroy their revenue stream.
What happened next was astounding, from the conventional, commercial software industry point of view - and utterly predictable to anyone who knew about the Free Software Foundation. Programmers (mostly academics and students) began using Linux. They found that it didn't do things they wanted it to do – so they fixed it. And where they improved it, they sent the improvements to Linus, who rolled them into the kernel. And Linux began to grow.
There's a term for this model of software development; it's called Open Source (see www.opensource.org/ for more information).
Anyone can have the source code – it's free (in the sense of free speech, not free beer). Anyone can contribute to it.
If you use it heavily you may want to extend or develop or fix bugs in it - and it is so easy to give your fixes back to the community that most people do so.
An operating system kernel on its own isn't a lot of use; but Linux was purposefully designed as a near-clone of Unix, and there is a lot of software out there that is free and was designed to compile on Linux. By about 1992, the first 'distributions' appeared.
A distribution is the Linux-user term for a complete operating system kit, complete with the utilities and applications you need to make it do useful things – command interpreters, programming tools, text editors, typesetting tools, and graphical user interfaces based on the X windowing system. X is a standard in academic and scientific computing, but not hitherto common on PCs; it's a complex distributed windowing system on which people implement graphical interfaces like KDE and Gnome.
As more and more people got to know about Linux, some of them began to port the Linux kernel to run on non-standard computers. Because it's free, Linux is now the most widely-ported operating system there is.
Task 13. Match the term with the definition.
Table A |
Table B |
1. Kernel 2. Free Software Foundation 3. Source code 4. Open Source 5. A distribution 6. X |
A) A type of software development where any programmer can develop or fix bugs in the software B) The original systems program from which compiled programs are generated C) A complete operating system kit with the utilities and applications you need to make it do useful things D) A standard distributed windowing system on which people implement graphical interfaces E) An organisation of volunteers dedicated to making good software that anyone could use without paying F) The core of an operating system that handles memory allocation, talks to hardware devices, and makes sure everything keeps running |
Task 14. Mark the following statements as True or False:
Linux was created in the 1980s.
Minix was created by a university student.
Linux is based on Unix.
Minix is based on Unix.
Linux runs on more types of computer than any other operating system.
Main clause |
Action |
Subordinate clause |
Examples |
PAST |
Simultaneous |
The Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
Mark was watching her while she was reading. |
Preceding |
The Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
He didn’t know why she had left without leaving a note. |
|
Following |
Future-in-the-Past (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
The note on the table said that she would not back. |
|
PRESENT |
Simultaneous |
The Present Indefinite or the Present Continuous (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
James has told me that he is too busy now. |
Preceding |
The Present Perfect, the Past Indefinite, the Present Perfect Continuous or the Past Continuous (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
I don’t think we have met before. From your looks it’s clear that it has been raining hard. |
|
Following |
Means of expressing future (no matter which of the past tenses is used in the principle clause) |
I hope he will help me. |
|
FUTURE |
Simultaneous |
The Present Indefinite or the Present Continuous |
They will find they have much to do there. |
Preceding |
The Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite |
He will find that Mary has left. |
|
Following |
Means of expressing future |
I’ll let you know what he will do. |
TENSE CHANGE - IN - INDIRECT SPEECH Present Simple tense into Past Simple Present Continuous tense into Past Continuous Present Perfect tense into Past Perfect Present Perfect Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous Past Simple into Past Perfect Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect into Past Perfect Future Simple, will into would Future Continuous, will be into would be Future Perfect, will have into would have
DIRECT SPEECH |
INDIRECT SPEECH |
PRESENT TENSE |
|
PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE |
|
He said, “I write a letter” She said, “He goes to school daily” They said, “We love our country” He said, “He does not like computer” |
He said that he wrote a letter. He said that she went to school daily. They said that they loved their country.
He said that he did not like computer. |
PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS |
|
He said, “He is listening to the music” She said, “I am washing my clothes” They said, “We are enjoying the weather” She said, “I am not laughing” |
He said that he was listening to the music. She said that she was washing her clothes. They said that they were enjoying the weather. She said that she was not laughing. |
PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT |
|
She said, “He has finished his work”
He said, “I have started a job”
I said, “She has eaten the meal”
They said, “We have not gone to New York. |
She said that he had finished his work. He said that he had started a job.
I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said that they had not gone to New York. |
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS |
|
He said, “I have been studying since 3 o’clock” She said, “It has been raining for three days.” I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007” |
He said that he had been studying since 3 o’clock. She said that it had been raining for three days. I said that she had been working in this office since 2007. |
PAST TENSE |
|
PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT |
|
He said to me, “You answered correctly” John said, “They went to cinema” He said, “I made a table” She said, “I didn’t buy a car” |
He said to me that I had answered correctly. John said that they had gone to cinema. He said that he had made a table.
She said that she had not bought a car. |
PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS |
|
They said, “We were enjoying the weather” He said to me, “ I was waiting for you”
I said, “It was raining” She said, “I was not laughing” |
They said that they had been enjoying the weather. He said to me that he had been waiting for me. I said that it had been raining. She said that she had not been laughing. |
PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change) |
|
She said, “She had visited a doctor” He said, “I had started a business” I said, “She had eaten the meal” They said, “We had not gone to New York. |
She said that she had visited a doctor. He said that he had started a business. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said they had not gone to New York. |
FUTURE TENSE |
|
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD |
|
He said, “I will study the book” She said, “I will buy a computer” They said to me, “We will send you gifts” I said, “I will not take the exam” |
He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send me gifts.
I said that I would not take the exam. |
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE |
|
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” She said,” I will be shifting to a new home” He said, “I will be working hard” He said, “He will not be flying kite” |
I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. He said that he would not be flying kite. |
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE |
|
He said, “I will have finished the work”
She said, “They will have passed the examination” He said, “I will have gone” |
He said that he would have finished the work.
She said that they would have passed the examination. He said that he would have gone. |