Материал: Гвоздева Пхысицс фор адванцед студентс 2011
3.According to the General Theory of Relativity the laws are the same for someone standing in one place.
4.Observers moving at different velocities measure different time intervals between the same pair of events.
Note:
You translate the past participle V3 without any words referring to it
before you translate a N.
Study the sentences.
1.The number of particles emitted decreased.
2.The energy released is in the order of one electron volt per atom.
3.The mass required is considerably greater than the masses of all galaxies.
III. We use to V to talk about the purpose of doing something (why someone does something). We can also use in order to V to talk about the purpose.
Study the sentences.
1.We used new mathematical calculation techniques to show that there was a state of infinite density in the past.
2.To see where a particle is, you have to shine light on it.
3.In order to escape from a black hole, you would have to travel faster than light.
4.In order to discuss the beginning of the universe, we need a theory that combines general relativity with quantum mechanics.
IV. S + is supposed; is considered; is believed, is supposed; is expected; is assumed + to V. These verbs express generally accepted opinion and correspond to Russian – Считают, что; Полагают, что;
Ожидают, что; Допускают, что
Study the sentences.
1.General relativity can’t be considered to be a complete theory.
2.The so-called missing matter is believed (is considered, is supposed, is assumed) to reside within clusters of galaxies.
3.The neutrino was believed to have no mass of its own, but some recent observations have suggested that the neutrino may have a small mass.
V. One is a personal pronoun and can be used as the subject of a sentence = You. It is a formal subject. One (You) is not translated.
Study the sentences.
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1.One can plot a graph of the speed of galaxies against their brightness or magnitude.
2.The uncertainty principle of Heisenberg showed that one couldn’t measure the state of a physical system exactly. The more accurately one measures its velocity, the less accurately one can measure its position. So, one can’t predict the probabilities of different outcomes.
VI. Two negations make a sentence emphatic.
The full implications of the photoelectric effect were not realized until 1925. = только в 1925…
Study the sentences.
1.The implications of this theory for old stars and other massive bodies were not realized until the 1960’s.
2.Neutron stars were not observed until 1967.
Give Russian correspondence:
the fact that, to lead to (to result in, to give rise to), in particular (ant. in general ), in order to (to V), continuous (ant. discrete)), rather (we use rather to introduce a correction), directly (straightly), at least (the minimum amount), the more ….., the greater; thus (so, therefore, hence), as (since), times (multiplied by), that is (that is to say)
THE NECESSARY EXTRA GRADIENT
IS QUANTUM MECHANICS
FYI
A singularity is a place of infinite density. It would be the end of time. The gravitational field of a singularity would be so strong that light couldn’t escape from the region around it but would be dragged back by the gravitational field.
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity turned out to predict singularities, which led to a crisis in physics. The equations of general relativity, which relate the curvature of space-time with the distribution of mass and energy, cannot be defined as singularity. This means that general
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relativity cannot predict what comes out of a singularity. In particular, general relativity cannot predict how the universe should begin at the big bang. Thus, general relativity cannot be considered to be a complete theory. It needs an added ingredient in order to determine how the universe should begin and what should happen when matter collapses under its gravity.
The necessary extra ingredient seems to be quantum mechanics. In 1905 Einstein wrote about a phenomenon called the photoelectric effect. It had been observed that when light fell on certain metals, charged particles were given off. The puzzling thing about the photoelectric effect was that if the intensity of the light was reduced, the number of particles emitted decreased, but the speed with which each particle was emitted remained the same. Einstein showed that this could be explained if light came not in continuously variable amounts but rather as packets of a certain size. Einstein’s paper showed that you could directly observe individual quanta. Each particle emitted corresponded to one quantum of light hitting the metal. Einstein’s discovery won him the Nobel Prize in 1922.
The full implications of the photoelectric effect were not realized until 1925, when Heisenberg pointed out that the photoelectric effect made it impossible to measure the position of a particle exactly. To see where a particle is, you have to shine light on it. But Einstein had shown that you could not use a very small amount of light; you had to use at least one packet, or quantum. This packet of light would disturb the particle and would cause it to move at a speed in some direction. The more accurately you wanted to measure the position of the particle, the greater the energy of the packet you would have to use and thus the more it would disturb the particle. The uncertainty in the position of the particle, times the uncertainty in its speed, would always be greater than a certain minimum amount.
The uncertainty principle of Heisenberg showed that as one couldn’t measure the state of the system exactly, one couldn’t predict the probabilities of different outcomes. It was this element of chance, or randomness, that so disturbed Einstein. Einstein refused to believe that physical laws should not make a definite, unambiguous prediction for what would happen.
Einstein’s general relativity is what is called a classical theory; that is, it does not incorporate the uncertainty principle.
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Stephen Hawking
Vocabulary Notes
1.to relate something with something – to connect something with something
2.extra – additional
3.to reduce – to decrease
4.variable – changeable
5.to correspond – to be similar
6.to point out – to show
7.If something is disturbed, its shape or position is changed. If something disturbs you it makes you worry.
8.If someone refuses to do something, he doesn’t want to do it.
9.to cause – to make something do something
10.an outcome – a result
11.unambiguous – clear
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing) I. Give your interpretation.
1.The equations of general relativity
2.A crisis in physics
3.The photoelectric effect
4.The puzzling thing about the photoelectric effect
5.The Einstein’s explanation
6.The uncertainty principle of Heisenberg
II. Study grammar point I and do the exercise.
Change the sentences according to the model: S + turned out +
+to V (be V3).
1.It turned out that Einstein’s theory of relativity predicts singulari-
ties.
2.It turned out that general relativity cannot predict what comes out of a singularity.
3.It turned out that a necessary extra ingredient is quantum mechan-
ics.
4.It turned out that the quantum phenomenon and the uncertainty principle are unavoidable
5.It turned out that the number of particles emitted decreased, if the intensity of light reduced.
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6.It turned out that the speed with which each particle was emitted remained the same.
7.It turned out that light came as packets of a certain size.
8.It turned out that each particle emitted corresponded to one quantum of light hitting the metal.
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.What is a singularity?
2.What do the equations of general relativity relate the curvature of space-time with?
3.What does general relativity need in order to determine how the universe should begin?
4.What does the necessary extra ingredient seem to be?
5.For what discovery did Einstein win the Nobel Prize?
6.How much light do you have to use to see where the particle is according to Einstein?
7.Why do you have to use a quantum of light, but not a smaller amount of light?
8.What did Einstein refuse to believe?
9.Why is The General Theory of Relativity considered to be a classical theory?
Exercise 2 (class activity)
It is (was) …. that = именно It is (was) ….. who = именно Translate the sentences.
1. It is quantum mechanics that seems to be the necessary extra ingredient to determine how the universe should begin.
2 It was the German physicist Max Planck who introduced the idea of light coming in quanta.
3.It was the paper on the photoelectric effect that won Einstein the Nobel Prize.
4.It is the quantum of light that would disturb the particle and would cause it to move at a speed in some direction.
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