6.The genetic code and sequence built into a biosystem guide and control the self-assembly process.
7.Self-assembly is the organization and pattern formed naturally by the fundamental building blocks such as molecules and cells.
8.The astounding possibilities nanotechnology is going to entail are estimated to happen from 5 to 30 years from now.
Exercise 3 (in groups)
Give Russian correspondence of the terms used in nanotechnolo-
gy.
1 a manufacturing process
2 fabrication and integration of nanodevices and nanomaterials
3 a control system
4 the device and environment interaction
5 a tunable physical variable
6 an ordered array
7a self-assembled monolayer
8a functional device
9computer storage and operation capacity
10atomic scale precision and control
11scanning probe microscopy
12atom-by-atom engineering
13a highly energy efficient system
14atomic scale interactions
INTERVIEW WITH RALPH MERKLE (an advisor to Foresight Institute)
Read the interview twice, changing parts.
–What opportunities does nanotechnology offer?
–First of all, medical care. Diseases are caused largely by damage at the molecular and cellular level, yet today’s surgical tools are too large to deal with that kind of problem. A molecular manufacturing technology will let us build molecular surgical tools, and those tools will, for the first time, let us directly address the problems at the very root level.
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–And besides the opportunities in medicine? What else?
–Molecular manufacturing will let us have a much lower cost infrastructure. In other words, today manufacturing takes place in very large facilities. If you want to build, for example, a computer chip, you need a giant semiconductor fabrication facility. But nature can grow complex molecular machines using nothing more than a plant. Potatoes are a miracle of biology, and yet they are so cheap. The reason for this is that the potato can grow more potatoes. It is a self-replicating technology and it demonstrates the feasibility of a self-replicating manufacturing capability.
–Are there any other areas that would be significantly affected by nanotechnology?
–Nanotechnology will let us build incredibly powerful molecular
computers. Computer storage and operation capacity will be improved by a factor of a million. Lighter computers and lighter sensors would let us have more function in a given weight, which is very important if you are launching things into space. Besides, we will have much lighter, much stronger materials, and this will reduce the cost of planes and rockets.
–How will artificial systems be different from living systems?
–They will function correctly if we provide them with a very specif-
ic environment. Without that environment they won’t function.
–Can you put any kind of timeframe on that?
–We’re talking about decades – and, probably, not many decades.
Vocabulary Notes
1.to address a problem – to deal with a problem
2.an opportunity – a possibility
3.a root – (here) an origin
4.facilities – equipment
5.a feasibility – a possibility
6.a capability – ability
7.to replicate − to make an exact copy
Exercise 4 (in pairs)
Summarize the answer to each question in one sentence, write the sentences down and reproduce the dialogue formulated by you.
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Exercise 5 (in groups) Discussion
Students are giving talks on nanotechnology on the basis of postreading III.
UNIT 3
NUCLEAR REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points.
I. We use to V to say why someone does the action.
Study the sentence.
Solar energy can be used to heat buildings either directly (passive solar energy) or by the use of solar collectors (active solar energy).
II. N + to V (to be V3)
The infinitive after a noun characterizes it and expresses an action that can be done or must be done in the future.
Study the sentence.
Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to insert large amounts of boron into the reactor to shut down the fission reaction in case of emergency.
III. N + ing is a verbal noun. We use it as the subject of the sentence.
Study the sentences.
1.According to the Energy Foundation, using available rooftops for flexible sheets of tiny solar cells could provide 710, 000 megawatts across the United States, whose current electrical capacity is 950,000 megawatts.
2.What does one mean by energy conservation? Using less energy and using less energy more efficiently.
IV. We use by + Ving to say how something happens.
Study the sentence.
The reactor core generates heat by converting the kinetic energy of
fission products into thermal energy.
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V. We use would to talk about the natural course and behavior of things and events as a result of some action. Would is the less definite form of will
Study the sentence.
Pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor would reduce its power output, and its extracting would increase it.
VI. You translate a past participle V3 before you translate a N. We sometimes put V3 before a noun, but we usually put it after a
noun.
Study the sentences.
1.Commonly used moderators include regular (light) water (75% of the world’s reactors).
2.The number of particles emitted decreased.
3.The energy released is in the order of one electron volt per atom.
4.Fossil fuels, such as oil, gas and coal, are simply stored solar ener-
gy.
VII. that (those) is used to refer to a thing (things) that has been mentioned before.
Study the sentences.
The heat power generated by the nuclear reaction is 1,000,000 times that of the equal amount of coal.
VIII. Saying what will happen we use going to (not will) when there is something in the present situation which shows what will happen. The speaker feels sure about what will happen because of the situation now.
Study the sentence.
Mankind is going to need vast amounts of energy in the future.
Give Russian correspondence:
as opposed to (unlike), to turn into (to change into), original (initial), and so on (etc.), thereby (thus, as a result), commonly (typically), to result in (to lead to, to give rise to), a time, then (after that), former, so (therefore), in addition to (besides), considerable (rather large), factor (coefficient), by, somewhat (a bit), the only (single)
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THE NUCLEAR REACTOR
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points. Translate the sentences marked with asterisks in writing.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion.
The nuclear reactor is used as an energy source for the generation of electric power. This energy is used to heat water and turn it into steam. The steam is used to drive a turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.
The reactor converts nuclear energy into heat. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorbs a neutron it undergoes nuclear fission. The original heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei which release kinetic energy, gamma radiation and free neutrons; collectively known as fission products. A portion of these products is later absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on.
*The nuclear chain reaction can be controlled by neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons to cause more fission. In nuclear engineering, a neutron moderator is a medium which reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235*. Commonly used moderators include regular (light) water (75% of the world’s reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors) and heavy water (5% of reactors). The increase or decrease of the rate of fission will result in the increase or decrease of the energy output.
*The reactor core generates heat by converting the kinetic energy of fission products into thermal energy. The heat power generated by the nuclear reaction is 1,000,000 times that of the equal amount of coal.*
A cooling source – often water but sometimes a liquid metal – is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam.
The power output of the reactor is controlled by controlling the number of neutrons able to create more fission. Control rods are used to absorb neutrons. Pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor would reduce its power output, and its extracting would increase it.
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