6.The interactions are divided into ………… (Into what categories?)
7.The interactions are represented by ……………. (By what fields?)
Exercise 3 A Round Table Talk Matter particles and interactions
Student A asks the first question formulated in ex. 2, student B answers it and addresses the next question to student C.
UNIT 5
THE QUARKS
PRE-READING TASK
Study some grammar points.
I. We use two variants.
1.It was found that nucleons, protons and neutrons are made up of other particles called quarks.
2.Nucleons, protons and neutrons were found to be made up of other particles called quarks.
We use these structures with: is thought; is believed; is supposed; is expected; is considered (считают, полагают) is said (говорят); is known (известно) is proved (доказано)
Study the sentences.
1.It is supposed that the strong interactions between quarks are car-
ried out by spin-1 particles called gluons.
2. The strong interactions between the quarks are supposed to be carried out by spin-1 particles called gluons.
II. We use must, have to and should to say that it is necessary to do something.
With must the speaker is giving his own feelings; with have to he is just giving facts.
Should is not as strong as Must.
Study the sentences.
1.Hadrons have to be colorless.
2.It should be emphasized that quarks come in three colors.
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Note
We also use must + V to say we are sure that something is true = most probably.
Study the sentence.
It was realized that hadrons must be bound states of other particles called quarks.
III. S + seems + to V = Russian – По-видимому; Создаётся впе-
чатление, что + S
S + appears + to V = Russian – По видимому; Кажется, что;
Оказывается, что + S
We use S + seems (appears) + to have V3 for the action in the past.
Study the sentences.
1.Quarks seem to have a curious property.
2.It appears impossible to obtain one quark.
Give Russian correspondence:
by now, a product (a result), until, to realize (to understand), although (though), fairly (rather), within (in), either … or, too + Adj., any, it is likely (probably), it is unlikely (hardly)
HADRONS ARE COMPOSED OF QUARKS
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
By now it is clear that the particles of matter are composites. Protons and neutrons which constitute the masses of atomic nuclei were found to be made up of other particles called quarks, the product of imagination of physicists until their existence was confirmed in 1976. It was realized that the proton and other hadrons such as the pi meson could not be truly elementary particles, but they must be bound states of other particles called quarks. So, hadrons are composed of quarks.
Quarks seem to have a curious property that, although they can move fairly freely within a hadron, it appears impossible to obtain just one quark; they always come either in groups of three (like the proton or the neutron) or in pairs consisting of a quark and an antiquark (like the pi meson). To explain it the quarks were given an attribute called color. It should be emphasized that it has nothing to do with our own perception of color; quarks are too small to be seen by visible light. It is mere-
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ly a convenient name. The idea is that quarks come in three colors – red, green, and blue – but that any isolated bound state, such as a hadron, has to be colorless, either a combination of red, green and blue like the proton, or a mixture of red and antired, green and antigreen, and blue and antiblue, like the pi meson.
The strong interactions between the quarks are supposed to be carried out by spin-1 particles called gluons. The gluons also carry color, and they and the quarks obey a theory called chromodynamics, or QCD for short.
Scientists believe that quarks are not really elementary, as they seem to be at the moment, but they are bound states of the fundamental N = 8 particles. It is unlikely that we shall have accelerators powerful enough to probe these composite structures within the foreseeable future.
Stephen Hawking
Vocabulary Notes
1.a composite – something that is composed of other things
2.to confirm – to prove again
3.to be bound – to be closely related and to have an effect on each
other
4.curious – (here) – unusual
5.to have nothing to do with – to be different from
6.a perception – understanding – the ability to understand by means of five senses
7.to carry out – to perform
8.to obey – to do what you are told to do
9.to probe – to investigate
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Formulate 5 sentences which begin with: It is realized that …
(the first paragraph).
Model: By now it is realized that the particles of matter are composites.
II. Formulate 3 sentences which begin with: It should be emphasized that … (the second paragraph).
III. Change the sentences according to the model. Model: S + is found (is supposed) + to V (be V3)
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1.Nucleons, protons and neutrons are composed of quarks.
2.Hadrons are bound states of other particles called quarks.
3.Hadrons are composed of quarks.
4.Quarks have a curious property.
5.Quarks come either in groups of three or in pairs consisting of a quark and an antiquark.
6.The strong interactions between the quarks are carried out by spin-
1particles called gluons.
7.The gluons carry color.
IV. Follow the passage. Formulate 4 simple sentences with
1.to constitute
2.to be made up of
3.to be composed of
4.to consist of
V. Give words close in meaning.
1.to be made up of
2.the product
3.to understand
4.unusual
5.rather
6.to have nothing to do with
7.to investigate the structure
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.Into what two groups are particles of matter divided?
2.What is the difference between hadrons and leptons?
3.How many quarks is the proton composed of?
4.How many quarks is the neutron composed of?
5.How many quarks is the pi meson composed of?
6.What property do quarks have?
5.What is the idea of the attribute called color?
6.By what particles are the strong interactions between quarks carried out?
7.What theory do quarks and gluons obey?
8.Are quarks elementary?
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Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Make the sentences passive is (are), was (were) + V3 using a direct object as the subject.
1.Scientists confirmed the existence of quarks in 1976.
2.Scientists gave the quarks an attribute called color.
3.We can’t see quarks by visible light because they are very small.
4.Spin-1 particles carry out the strong interactions between the quarks.
5.Nuclear bonds hold together elementary particles.
6.Antiparticles replace particles. Left-handed replace right-handed.
Exercise 3 (do it yourself)
Complete the sentences.
1.Particles of matter … composites.
2.All particles ….. of …… of quarks.
2.Hadrons … elementary particles.
3.They …… quarks.
4.Quarks are … small ….. by visible light.
6.They …… a … property.
7.It is impossible ….. one quark.
8.Quarks come … in groups of three … in pairs.
9.Quarks come in three colors: …….
10.The strong interactions between quarks ….. … by gluons.
11.The gluons and the quarks ….. a theory …………
12.Scientists believe that ……………….
UNIT 6
A SHIFT FROM A NEWTONIAN
TO AN EISTEINIAN COSMOLOGY
THE SCIENCE OF ALBERT EINSTEIN
PRE-READING TASK
I. What do you know about Albert Einstein?
1.What epochal papers did Einstein write?
2.In what year did he write his epochal papers?
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